Language and Culture

 The very question; ‘which came first, the chicken or the egg?’ could also apply to language and culture. If language is the main means whereby people conduct their daily business, social lives, and is used as the main communication tool, then the link between culture and language may be evident but quite complex. But before we try to answer the above question, let’s look at some aspects of language and culture which combine these together.

Have you ever thought about, or even been asked by a student in class, how to define what language is? We use it everyday, we know innately what it is, but to put words on it, to try to define and explain is actually quite a difficult thing to do, without being superficial or losing some meaning. Language has been described by some as a system of signs that come together to create meaning. Others have described it as a method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of produced symbols. However, there is one thing which is evident when trying to define language and that is its importance and relevance to those who use it and how it is inextricably linked to culture.

Like language, culture too can be difficult to define. The image of an iceberg can help us have a better understanding of how deeply ingrained culture is. Culture characterises a certain group of people at a given time. On the face value, or the top of the iceberg, we can see aspects of culture such as food, clothing, sport, music, architecture and art, the thing we enjoy when we are on holiday. However, further down the iceberg - under the water mark – it becomes more complicated and we notice that there is so much more to consider: ideas, beliefs, skills, traditions, attitudes and values, as well as social interactions. Culture includes both the tangible and intangible products of a society.

So what is it that links culture and language together? Well to this we can say that both language and culture are learned or acquired. Both have patterns that change and are a universal fact of life, and both are part of our identity. Just as we acquire our first language, we too acquire our first culture. Also, just as we may chose to learn a second language, we can learn a second culture or develop intercultural awareness. However developing ones intercultural awareness can be a difficult thing to do. There are no rules to learn, no structures to apply and the process can vary from one individual to another. This can be a problem in the language classroom. As teachers, we teach a language, and therefore teach the culture of the language, but we also face the culture of the learners in our class, an aspect which cannot be ignored and which we cannot expect our learners to leave at the door for class time. Therefore having an understanding of the different stages a person goes through when developing their intercultural awareness can help us have more of an insight into our learners. It can also help us as teachers settle into the new ways of life we face when we take off around the world teaching English as a foreign language.

The five stages when developing intercultural awareness can be best described in a U-shaped curve (Hoang-Thu, 2010).

1. The honey moon stage – This is where the difference we see in other culture are exciting and attractive.
2. The disintegration stage – The novelties wear off at this stage and frustration or helplessness can take over.
3. The reintegration stage – At this point culture can be problematic. One can become defensive or not respond to the culture.
4. The autonomy stage – This is where we turn back up in the U. We start to develop a little perspective, opinions become balanced, objective, and start becoming more positive.
5. Finally we reach the interdependence stage – We adopt a new identity a bicultural or multicultural person.

Recognising these five stages can help us as teachers find our feet when taking on the responsibilities of travelling and teaching in other cultures. Moreover, it can also help us to understand our students and the uphill struggle they may be having, not only learning English as a foreign language, but also getting their heads around the culture of the language too.

So which does come first, the language or the culture? What are your opinions on this? Leave your comments below!

Reference

Hoang-Thu, T. 2010. 'Teaching culture in the EFL/ESL classroom', [Available online]  http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED511819&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED511819 [Accessed on 29/4/2013]

Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Second Language with Task Based Learning

This blog gives an account of a course I co-ordinated and taught recently in a high school in Japan which approached the challenges of English language skills and academic skills development. The course, which was taught to a group of 13 students, aimed to give students an opportunity to experience third level academia and help these students adjust to the longer class timetable, an increase in workload, and becoming more autonomous in their studies. With just two weeks to overcome these challenges, we set about co-ordinating and organising a course that merged task-based learning with developing critical thinking skills, and threaded language strategy skills and academic research skills to result in a final presentation project. This blog gives a short description of our approach and how using some basic educational tools helped us overcome some of the issues we were facing.

Language Proficiency

In Japan it is normal for students to learn English in school, yet not many people speak English there. In many schools English is taught by a Japanese teacher who is proficient in English, so no doubt, translation is a key component to learning the English language in school. The method of learning Kanji may also influence on how English linguistics is learnt. Over the last few years working in Japan, I have noticed that the Japanese know a lot of the English language. They know a lot of vocabulary and grammar, but they don't know how to use it. In other words, the grammar and vocabulary of the language are taught, but the basic skills of communication in the language are not developed thoroughly in the school system. However, things are starting to change, and more and more schools are starting to bring in communicative English language teachers (ALTs) to work with and co-teach with the Japanese teachers in the schools.

The lack of communicative skills was one of the first issues we faced when developing this course. One of our aims was to get the students discussing topics, and we faced this by noting down the language strategies necessary for discussions. For example, agreeing and disagreeing, asking critical questions, making suggestions and giving feedback.

To develop these skills in class, we followed a very simple communicative model. In each class the students were presented with the a language strategy through examples and model conversations, we then practiced these strategies through controlled drilling and repetition, and finally we gave the students a fluency activity to carry out and produce the strategies in a more natural way. We organised the language strategies into the curriculum in a way that allowed the students to build up the skills and recycle previous strategies covered in classes in each fluency activity. Many of the language strategies we focused on involved being critical. Therefore,  another challenge we faced was how to develop critical thinking, so students could develop their communication skills effectively without being hindered by lack of critical thinking abilities.

Critical Thinking Skills

The development of critical thinking skills was another issue we faced. Again many high schools in Japan lack in the development of these skills which is very evident when students start third level education. For many students in Japan, there is a very thin line between being critical and being disrespectful when challenging or asking of another, mainly teachers' and professors', opinions. In a society were respect is a key aspect in all areas of life, it is understandable that students do not want to cross this line and come across as being disrespectful. In order to approach this, we used Edward De Bono' Six Thinking Hats process. This allowed us to direct students to think a certain way at certain times, and because it was a set process, students crossed the line comfortably as part of the task they were assigned. Using De Bono's Six Thinking Hats had to be very well scaffolded by the teacher throughout the course. For example, after presenting the Six Thinking Hats on the first day, they were threaded into each language strategy lesson with questions to raise students awareness of how the language strategies reflected the thinking process of the Six Thinking Hats. We asked questions like, "When you make a suggestion, what thinking act are you using?", or "If I wanted to disagree with this opinion, what thinking hat would I have to use, and how could I express my disagreement?" Over time the students became a lot more comfortable using the Six Thinking Hats and less hesitant using the language strategies they were presented with in class. They could now see the relevance and connection of how both worked together. However, we didn't stop there with De Bono's Six Thinking Hats. As part of developing their research skills, students were assigned an article in English to read every night, and they were instructed to take notes on a worksheet. The worksheet was divided up into sections that reflected the thinking of the six hats. These worksheets and other research notes later came together in the form of group posters, and these posters set the foundation for the presentation project.

Academic Research Skills

The course was designed around a problem based topic. By choosing a problem, it allowed us to use the critical thinking skills to develop evaluations on possible solutions to these problems. On this particular course we looked at social problems Japan faced when hosting the Olympics. Each article assigned to the students to read for research was an issue around this topic. The students were encouraged to do their own research also, either in English or Japanese. We developed the students' evaluations skills by using the academic structure Situation - Problem - Response - Evaluation (S.P.R.E.). This was also used as the main structure for their presentation on the social problem they choose. Before choosing their problem, the students came together to share their opinions and responses. This was done in poster form: each group were given 2 problems, and had to create a visual way of showing these problems, and ideas of how respond to these problems. As students worked on the posters, we discussed both positive and negative evaluations of their responses. Students were encouraged to look at the negative evaluations even more, so they could be more critical of their ideas and could highlight this in their presentation work.

Presentations Skills

The course finished up with students doing group presentations. For all the students, it was their first time presenting in English so a lot of time was given to developing presentation skills. We focused on sub-skills, such as using visuals like graphs and charts (we did not allow powerpoint as we wanted the focus to be on the content rather than the visual), structuring the content of the presentation, writing a draft, and using cue cards for fluency. The presentation structure followed the SPRE layout, and the students were encouraged to give a positive and negative evaluation of their ideas. The presentations were a great success, and the students showed great autonomy developing their ideas and finding information to support their ideas. They also showed great confidence in their presenting which evidently came from the knowledge of the work they had done to create the presentation content.

Scaffolding

Overall the course was a great success. I had a great group of students to work with, and I have no doubt that these students will do very well in third level education. As a teacher, I recognised that the balance of scaffolding learning and controlling the work is very important in a task-based learning course. There is a sense of bargaining if something will work or not. Teacher support is essential in a task-based course, but allowing room for mistakes by students when doing these tasks is just as important. While all teachers will strive to achieve a good outcome at the end of a course, it is important to recognise that a bad outcome is just as much part of the learning for the student.

Learning from your mistakes can be just as effective as learning from doing something right. From a pedagogical perspective, task-based learning  can be, and should be, about getting it right and about getting it wrong. To end the course I did a reflection session with the students on what they had done during the course, and how it would help them in the future. It was during this reflection feedback session, that it became clear what students felt they did well, and what they felt they needed to improve. The reflection feedback session also gave students an opportunity to reflect on their peers, and highlight what they learned from each other. 

When I first approached this course with task-based learning in mind, I was told it wouldn't work. I was told the school had tried projects like this in the past, and they were not a success. There is a lot involved in task-based learning, and the simple attitude of "handing if over to the students" doesn't work. It is essential for teachers to monitor constantly, scaffold, and even get down on your hands and knees to stick pictures on a poster. For me, I found that engaging with the project rather than trying to control it is essential. Give your students room to develop, and you will be very surprised how much they can do in such a short amount of time.

I hope you enjoyed this blog post and would be very happy to have your comments below.

Sentences - Part 1, Simple Sentences

In today's blog we are going to look at some of the rules around sentence structures. In this post we will look at simple sentences and some of the problems we might have with sentence structures when we writing in English.

So first of all, what is a sentence?

A sentence is a group of words (independent clause) that:

• Contains at least one subject and one verb.
• Expresses a complete though.

There are four kinds of sentences in English:

• Simple sentences
• Compound sentences
• Complex sentences
• Compound-complex sentences

In this post we are going to look at Simple Sentences

A simple sentence has one subject/verb pair. The subject tells who or what did something. The verb tells the action (jump, work, think) or condition (is, was, seem, appear). Some simple sentences may have an object also. The object is the receiver of the verb by the subject. However, not all sentences have an object, e.g. I travel a lot.

In order for a sentence to be  grammatically correct, the sentence must have a subject/verb agreement. Look at these examples:

A simple sentence can have one of several possible 'formulas'. Here are four possibilities:

Notice that the subject in a simple sentence may have two or more items (sentences 2 and 4). The verb may have two or more items (sentences 3 and 4). 

Subject/Verb Agreement

You already know that the subject and verbs agree in number:

So here are some common errors with subject/verb agreement:

1. When a sentence begins with the word there + verb be, the subject follows the be verb. For example, 

2. A prepositional phrase (a group of words beginning with a preposition such as of, with, in, at or on, and ending with a noun or pronoun) can come between a subject and its verb. Prepositional phrases may come after a subject, but they are not part of the subject.

3. Some words are always singular:

4. A few words are always plural:

5. A few words can be either singular or plural. In these cases, you must refer to the noun in the prepositional phrase:

Fragmented Sentences

In some languages , you can sometimes leave out the subject in a sentence; in others, you can sometimes leave out the verb.

In English, you must ALWAYS have at least one subject and one verb in every sentence. If you leave either the subject or the verb, your sentence is incomplete. We call an incomplete sentence a fragment, or fragment sentence.

These are fragments. Fragments are sentence errors.

Reference: Oshima, A and Hogue A, Introduction to Academic Writing, 3rd Ed., Pearson Longman

So now we have reviewed Simple Sentences. Check out our next blog post in our sentences series - Part 1, Compound Sentences

Sentences - Part 2, Compound Sentences

In part 2 of our sentence series we talk about compound sentences. In this blog we will look at what compound sentences are, and what are the important features we need to consider when writing compound sentences.

What is a compound sentence?

A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses joined by a comma and a co-ordinating conjunction. An independent clause, like a simple sentence, has a subject + verb and carries its own meaning (see the blog post Sentences - Part 1, Simple Sentences for more information).

A compound sentence has the following 'formula':

There are seven co-ordinating conjunctions in English. You can easily remember them by using the acronym FANBOYS. The English co-ordinating conjunctions are:

For has the same meaning as because; use for to introduce a reason or cause.

It is not easy to get there, for you have to hike down a long rail.

And joins sentences that are alike

He dropped the rice ball, and it rolled into a hole in the ground.

Nor means 'not this and not that'; use nor to join two negative clauses. You must use question word order after nor; place the auxiliary verb before the subject.

She didn't talk, nor did she move.

The book isn't very long, nor is it difficult to read.

But joins sentences that are opposite or show contract.

They were happy, but they were poor.

Or joins sentences that give choices or alternatives

He could choose a big box, or he could choose a small one.

Yet has approximately the same meaning as but; that is, it shows contrast or joins opposite. Use yet when the second part (clause) of the sentence says something is unexpected or surprising.

I was scared, yet I was also curious about the old lady.

So joins sentences when the second sentence expresses the result of something described in the first sentence.

The greedy man wanted all the mice's gold, so he pretended to be a cat.

* So (that) can also be used as a subordinator (see Sentences part 3 - Complex sentences) when connecting two clauses for a 'purpose'. In academic writing Therefore would be a more suitable linking word for this reason.

Using a comma with co-ordinating conjunctions

Use a comma before a co-ordinating conjunction in compound sentences only. Do not use a comma to join two words of two phrases in a simple sentence:

Run-ons and Comma Slices

Run-ons and comma slices are similar errors. Both happen when you join sentences incorrectly.

Run-ons happen when you join two simple sentences without a comma and without a connecting word. For example,

Men like to shop quickly women like to browse.

A comma slice error happens when you join two simple sentences with a comma alone. For example,

Men like to shop quickly, women like to browse.

There are three ways to correct run-on and comma slice errors:

* We will look at these in a different blog post

Proofreading techniques: How to find run-ons and comma slices in your writing.

Compound Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs

A second way to form a compound sentence is as follows:

Independent clause; + conjunctive adverb, + independent clause

Salt water boils at a higher temperature than freshwater; therefore, food cooks faster in salt water.

When writing a compound sentence in this structure, it is important to use the correct punctuation. You should put a semicolon (;) before and a comma (,) after the conjunctive adverb.

Reference: Oshima, A and Hogue A, Introduction to Academic Writing, 3rd Ed., Pearson Longman

In this blog post we reviewed compound sentences. Check out our next blog post in our sentences series, Sentences - Part 3, Complex Sentences

Sentences - Part 3, Complex sentences

In the final blog post of our series on sentence structures, we are looking at complex sentences. We will look at what complex sentences are, what are the rules of punctuation and what is the role of the subordinator in the sentence.

We know from the previous posts on sentence structure that a clause is a is a group of words that contain at least on subject and one verb;

Anna left the party early

because she was tired.

There are two types of clauses in English: independent and dependent (subordinating clause). An independent clause can be a sentence by itself.

Independent clause is another name for a simple sentence.

Anna left the party early

(You) hold the cat's mouth closed

(When you use the imperative, we do not use the subject 'you' as is it understood what the subject is already)

A dependent clause, subordinating clause, in contrast, cannot be a sentence by itself because its meaning is not complete. A dependent clause 'depends' on something else to complete its meaning.

... because she was tired.

... while I count to ten.

A complex sentence is a combination of one independent clause and one (or more) dependent clause(s) (subordinating clause).

Complex Sentences verses Compound Sentences

In a compound sentence, the co-ordinating conjunction must be in the middle of the two independent clauses (simple sentences).

We went to the shop, but he didn't buy anything.

In a complex sentence, the subordinator can appear at the start of the sentence of in the middle of the sentence.

The dependent clause always begins with the subordinator.

He goes to school after he finishes work.

After he finishes work, he goes to school.

Comma Rule

In a complex sentence, the the dependent clause comes first, separate the clauses with a comma. When the independent clause comes first, the subordinator separates the clause for you - you do not use a comma. 

Subordinators

Time Subordinators

after     

He goes to school after he finishes work.

After he finishes work, he goes to school.

as*

Several overcrowded buses passed as we were waiting.

As we were waiting, several overcrowded buses passed.

as soon as

She felt better as soon as she took the medicine.

As soon as she took the medicine, she felt better.

before

Before you apply to college, you have to take an entrance exam.

You have to take an entrance exam before you apply to college.

since

It's been a year since I left home.

Since I left home, it's been a year.

until

We can't leave the room until everyone has finished the test.

Until everyone has finished the test, we can't leave the room.

when

When you start college, you sometimes have to take a placement test.

You sometimes have to take a placement test when you start college.

whenever

Whenever I don't sleep well, I feel sick the next day.

I feel sick the next day, whenever I don't sleep well.

while

Several overcrowded buses passed while they were waiting.

While they were waiting, several overcrowded buses passed.

Reason Subordinators

because

Jack excels at sport because he trains hard.

Because he trains hard, Jack excels at sport.

since

Since she works out daily, Jill is in great condition.

Jill is in great condition since she works out daily. (It would be better to use because in this example of the subordinator in the middle of the sentence. The meaning would be much clearer.)

as*

As they want to compete in a marathon, they run everyday.

They run everyday as they want to compete in a marathon. (It would be better to use because in this example of the subordinator in the middle of the sentence. The meaning would be much clearer.)

So (that)

So (that) people could travel faster across the country, the Shinkansen was introduced to Japan.

The Shinkansen was introduced to Japan so (that) people could travel faster across the country.

Place Subordinators

where

I can never remember where I put my house keys.

Where I put my house keys, I can never remember.

wherever

A baby animal follows its mother wherever she goes.

Wherever she (the mother) goes, a baby animal follows its mother (her).

*Notice that as can be either a time subordinator or a reason subordinator.

We hope you found our series on sentence structures useful. Please share any comments with us in our comments section below.

Meet Jerry ...

Xinlong (Jerry) is a MSc Architectural Engineering: Environmental Design student at the University of Bath. 

Jerry has kindly taken some time out of his busy schedule to talk to us today about his experience on the English pre-sessional course which was combined with his degree offer, and gives some advice about academic skills and culture.

So first question Jerry, why did you apply for the University of Bath?

I applied for  Bath because this university has a very good reputation in the architect industry in the UK and the courses in the degree are very well organised - covered most of my interests. Plus, Bath is a very delicate town.

How did the pre-sessional English course help you?

Firstly, as this is my first time to study abroad, the pre-sessional course helped me start to talk to people in English, which made my following study much easier. Secondly, the writing part of the course was extremely helpful. I learned how to structure an academic essay in English properly. Thirdly, I met many friends who were going to take the same degree course as me in the course. Overall, the pre-sessional course was a very good start point of my study in the UK.

"the pre-sessional course helped me start to talk to people in English"

Were you surprised by the differences between the academic culture in your country and in the country where you studied?

Yes, the academic atmosphere in the UK is more active than in my country.

What differences did you not expect?

The relation between tutors and students is more like friends.

Do you think it's a good idea for students applying to an English language university to do an academic course/pre-sessional course to help them prepare?

Yes I think it’s a very good idea to do a pre-sessional course before the degree course for students who plan to study in English for the first time, even if your English level has reached the requirements, because this can help you to get familiar with the academic style beforehand.

"It’s a good idea to make clear what you need to improve in particular."

Do you have any advice for students who are thinking about taking an academic preparation course?

It’s a good idea to make clear what you need to improve in particular. This could make the course more effective. Also, try to engage in the course as much as possible, the more uncomfortable you feel during the pre-sessional course, the more comfortable you will feel during your degree course.

Are you happy with your experience on the course?

Overall I am very satisfied with my experience during the pre-sessional course. I feel very lucky to have met all the people in the course.

Thank you Jerry, and we wish you the best with your studies in the future.